Quantifying the effect of this phenomenon involves calculating displacement per atom using the Norgett−Robinson−Torrens model. This phenomenon causes malfunction when the collected charge it induces exceeds the critical charge. This phenomenon can cause metals to swell as a consequence of the Wigner (“vig-ner”) effect. Usage of borophosphosilicate glass in electronics increases susceptibility to this phenomenon. Replacing bulk silicon with silicon-on-insulator is a common method of ■END■