This is the outcome variable in two articles by Michalopoulos and Papaioannou studying the economic impacts of Africa’s pre- and post-colonial institutions. Luis Martinez estimated the elasticity of GDP with respect to this variable to argue that dictatorships have overstated economic growth by up to one-third. In simple experiments measuring this variable with a Minolta meter, William Nordhaus argued that real-output and real-wage measures understate welfare gains since 1900. Top-coding and (*) blurring errors plague a popular series of this variable produced by DMSP. NASA’s “Black Marble” project shows (-5[1])how this variable (10[1])was affected by South Africa’s load-shedding (-5[1])policy. (10[4])For 10 points, (10[1])stark economic divides such as between North and South Korea are visualized using what (10[1])variable (-5[1])that is usually measured at nighttime? ■END■ (10[3])