Quantifying the effect of this phenomenon involves calculating displacement per atom using the Norgett−Robinson−Torrens model. This phenomenon causes malfunction when the collected charge it induces exceeds the critical charge. This phenomenon can cause metals to swell as a consequence of the Wigner (“vig-ner”) effect. Usage of borophosphosilicate glass in electronics increases susceptibility to this phenomenon. (-5[2])Replacing bulk silicon with silicon-on-insulator is a common method of (*) "hardening" against this phenomenon. (10[1])This external phenomenon is the most common source of a type of soft error called a single-event upset. Electronics used in outer space must be (10[1])shielded (-5[1])from (10[1])this phenomenon, (-5[1])which can cause random bit flips. Total ionizing dose is a measure of the intensity of, for 10 points, what phenomenon detected using a Geiger counter? (10[1])■END■ (10[3])